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Study-Review Exercises for Chapter 13
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Contents:
Identify and explain significance of people and terms
Explain why each of the following is considered a new monarch.
Define the following key concepts and terms
Renaissance
The Renaissance is commonly described as a time of cultural achievement between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is agreed that the first artistic and literary manifestations of the Renaissance occurred in the city of Florence, which had grown wealthy from its system of banking. It was also a time of individuality, where people looked to increase their happiness on Earth and not wait for the afterlife. Individualism stressed personality and creativity, which helped create many of the great artists and thinkers of the time.
Oligarchy
An oligarchy is rule by merchant aristocracies. Oligarchic regimes had constitutions, but the power was really held by a number of wealthy merchants. For example, the government in Venice had a sophisticated constitution and was thought to be a republic. However, a group of merchant aristocrats actually ran the city.
Signori- Italy’s one man rulers
In 1300, signoris or oligarchies (the rule of merchant aristocracies) took over all the Italian city states. The signori despots manipulated the law and changed it to fit their own lifestyle and wants, while pretending to follow it completely. They held all the power, and were often seen flaunting it and their wealth. They used ceremonies for magnificent pageantry and elaborate ritual too.
Communes- sworn associations of free men seeking complete political and economic independence from local nobles
Merchant guilds formed these communes, and maintained everything that went on in the city, like trade, taxes, order, etc… They were little "cities" that tried to fight and win their independence from nobles, so the communes could be their own bosses. The nobles saw much possibility in the communes, so came and settled within the city, sometimes intermarrying. By marriage, many deals were settled, and a new class was formed, the urban class.
But eventually, the political part became to much. Popolos began to form, and took over the communes, and also late signoris and oligarchies.
popolo
During the twelfth century in Italy, a new class of nobility formed, a class made out of nobles and rich commercial families. The nobility class was tied together with marriage vows, which sealed business contracts. However, even though Italy claimed to be democratic, only a small part of the male population was allowed to vote. Others, who didn't meet the qualifications didn't have a voice in the government. The popolo was a group of heavily taxed and disenfranchised group that bitterly resented the exclusion from power. They wanted to be able to have positions in the government as well as equal taxation for everyone. In city after city, the popolo used armed force and violence to take over the city governments. They established republican governments, but instead did the same as the nobility had. They would not allow the influence of classes below them and therefore could not gain their support. Along with that, they could not establish civil order within their cities. Thus, by the fourteenth century, the rule of the merchant autocracies returned, as the movement for republican governments failed.
reconquista
The reconquista was a series of century-long wars of the northern Christian Spanish kingdoms to control the entire peninsula. It was a scared and patriotic crusade to take the country form Muslims. The Spanish had military and religious objectives- to convert or expel Muslims and Jews and to gain political control of the south. By the middle of the fifteenth century, many kingdoms dominated the weaker ones. This was followed by many more successful captures. By the end of the thirteenth century, Spain had fifty-one bishoprics: the reconquista eventually led to the establishment of a Roman ecclesiastical structure. After decades of fighting during the reconquista, the Spanish had expelled the Muslims, leaving the towns with a population shortage. The new lords of Spain recruited immigrants and therefore there was a great influx of people.
humanism
Humanism is an attitude that emphasizes the dignity and worth of the individual; emphasizing on human beings and their achievements, interests, and capabilities. A basic principle of humanism is that people are rational beings who possess within themselves the capacity for truth and goodness. Humanists rejected classical ideas that were opposed to Christianity. The leading humanists of the early Renaissance were rhetoricians, seeking effective and eloquent communication, both oral and written. The invention of printing with movable type, around the mid-15th century, gave a further impetus to humanism through the dissemination of editions of the classics. In Italy, humanism developed principally in the fields of literature and art. Renaissance humanists were skeptical of their authority, conscious of the historical distance separating themselves from the ancients, and fully aware that classical writers often disagreed among themselves. Whereas medieval writers looked to the classics to reveal God, Renaissance humanists studied the classics to understand human nature, and while they fully grasped the moral thought of pagan antiquity, Renaissance humanists viewed humanity from a strongly Christian perspective: men and women were made in the image and likeness of God.
secularism
Secularism involves a basic concern with the material world instead of with the eternal world of spirit. A secular way of thinking tends to find the ultimate explanation of everything and the final end of human beings within the limits of what the senses can discover. Renaissance people often held strong and deep spiritual interests, but in their increasingly secular society, attention was concentrated on the here and now, often on the acquisition of material things. The economic changes and rising prosperity of the Italian cities in the thirteenth century worked a fundamental change in social and intellectual attitudes and values. Wealth allowed greater material pleasures, a more comfortable life, the leisure time to appreciate and patronize the arts. Money could buy many sensual gratifications, and the rich, social-climbing patricians of Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Rome came to see life more as an opportunity to be enjoyed than as a painful pilgrimage to the City of God. Nor did church leaders do much to combat the new secular spirit; the papal court and the households of the cardinals were just as worldly as those of great urban patricians.
Spanish
(circa 1450-1516 A.D.)The Spanish people that lived under the rule of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella from 1474 to 1516 were a very diverse people. After centuries of struggle over control of the Iberian Peninsula, various Christian kingdoms took over the area. Though Christians may have held political control, Spain continued to have a notable population of Muslims and Jews to compliment the Christians. Spain was a loose collection of independent kingdoms. One kingdom consisted of the cities of Castile and Leon while the other kingdom consisted of the cities of Valencia, Majorca, Sicily, Cardena, and Naples all under the city of Aragon. In 1469, Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile, which was more of a union of two families, not a political union of two kingdoms.They came to power in 1474, and though they pursued the same foreign policy,Spain remained as a loose confederation of kingdoms until 1700. To strengthen their own authority, they decreased the power of the aristocracy by restructuring the royal council (who had full executive, legislative, and judicial power under the monarchy).
converses
Having been occupied by Hispanics, Romans, Visigoths, Jews, Muslims, and Christians, the Iberian Peninsula was one of the most diverse areas in Europe. This proved to be problematic, as religious and cultural diversity amongst and group of people were not considered virtues in European society. Eventually, anti-Semitism became a popular release amongst Christians who choose to blame Jews for the Black Death. Spanish Jews were massacred in Toledo by royal troops and Jew communities in Gerona and Seville were sacked by mobs. The Jews in Seville that survived were forced to accept baptism. Later Jewish communities to fall would be that of Valencia, Majorca, Barcelona, Burgos, Madrid, Segovia, and Cuenca.It was estimated that 40% of all Jews in Spain were either killed or forced to convert. The converted ones were called conversos, Marranos, or New Christians. King Ferdinand, trying to please public opinion, sought permission from the church to establish an Inquisition. The New Christians and Jews numbered 200,000 out of the population of 7.5 million and they held some of the most prominent positions in the liberal professions of medicine and law. Jews also had deep roots in the financial community, acting as moneylenders for centuries. Aristocrats resented having to depend on Jews financially, the poor resented converted tax collectors, and the religious doubted the honesty of their conversions. Ferdinand would not protect them, even as converted Christians, for fear of upsetting the public. Most converts identified themselves as Christians, no longer seeing why they should be labeled as “New”Christians. Some Christians saw Jews as a race, where they would all maintain the ethnic composition of their ancestors.
individualism
The Renaissance witnessed the emergence of many different personalities who glorified their uniqueness, or their individuality. Individualism stressed personality, distinctiveness, and full development of one's capabilities and talents. It was believed that a person's abilities should be stretched out until it is fully realized. Thirst for fame and the desire for success drove people to achieve their full potential. Thus, the quest for glory was a central component of Renaissance individualism.
materialism
During the Renaissance, there was a greater regard for physical matter and worldly possessions. Materialism involves a basic concern with the material world instead of with the eternal world of spirit. Renaissance people often held strong and deep spiritual interests, but increasingly, attention was concentrated on the here and now, often on the acquisition of material things. Wealth allowed greater material pleasures, a more comfortable life, and leisure time to pursue, appreciate, and patronize the arts. Money could buy many sensual gratifications and the rich came to see life as an opportunity to be enjoyed instead of as a painful pilgrimage to God.
hermendades
Hermandades, or "brotherhoods," were groups that acted as agents of justice during the late 1400s in Spain. Hermandades acted as police and judges locally. They were a medieval institution in Spain but were resurrected by Ferdinand and Isabella during their reign. The hermandades' return was meant to help reduce dissenting and conflicting aristocrats. By doing so, royal authority was supposed to be strengthened. Ironically, their purpose of reducing violence was reached with violent actions, which led them to be disbanded by 1498.
Machiavellian
The word "Machiavellian" in language is meant to describe anything corrupt, sly, power-hungry, or devious. It originates from Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote "The Prince," published in 1513. In it, he states a person's place in society, and how one can rise to the status of ruler. Machiavelli described the pursuit of political power: obtaining it, keeping it, and making it grow. He believed in the use of anything effective, whether it may be amoral or manipulative. This is the basis of the definition for "Machiavellian," though Machiavelli never advocated amoral or manipulative actions. He achieved the separation of ethics, morals, and politics, thereby stating politics was a whole new battlefield.
Identify and explain the significance of the following people and terms:
English Royal Council and Court of Star Chamber
The royal council was the center of royal authority after the Hundred Years' War. It governed at the national level, and mostly consisted of twelve to fifteen middle-class men, their origins of the lesser landowning class and their education in law. Though not completely excluded, very few great lords were among the King's closest advisors. Henry VII distrusted those of nobility, and though he did call a few meetings of Parliament in the early years of his reign, it was only to pass laws. He worked to restore royal prestige and to establish law and order at the local level.
The royal council handled any business the king put before it, executive, legislative, and judicial. They dealt with foreign affairs, and, for example, secured international recognition of the Tudor dynasty through the marriage of Henry VII's eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, that daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain in 1501. The council prepared laws for parliamentary ratification, and also dealt with real or potential aristocratic threats through a judicial offshoot. This was called the court of Star Chamber, named after the stars painted on the ceiling of the room.
The court of Star Chamber applied principles of Roman law, and its methods were sometimes terrifying: accused persons were not allowed to see evidence against them, sessions were secret, torture could be applied to extract confessions, and juries were not called. These procedures ran directly in counter to English common-law precedents, but they effectively reduced aristocratic troublemaking.
Conquest of Granada
The centuries-long "reconquista", the wars of the northern Christian kingdoms to control the entire peninsula, had military and religious objectives . They wanted conversion or expulsion of the Muslims and Jews and political control of the South. By the middle of the fifteenth century, the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon dominated the weaker Navarre, Portugal, and Granada, and the Iberian Peninsula. With the exception of Granada, the others had been won for Christianity. Even the marriage in 1469 of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon did not bring about administrative unity, but rather, constituted a dynastic union of two houses, not two peoples.
Revenues from ecclesiastical estates provided the means to raise an army to continue the reconquista. The victorious entry of Ferdinand and Isabella into Granada on January 6, 1492, signaled the culmination of eight centuries of Spanish struggle against the Arabs in southern Spain and the conclusion of the reconquista. Granada in the south was incorporated into the Spanish kingdom, and Ferdinand conquered Navarre in 1512.
Habsburg-Valois wars
Pope Leo X found France a dangerous friend and in a new alliance called on the Spanish and Germans to expel France from Italy. This anti-French combination was temporarily successful. In 1519 Charles V succeeded his grandfather Maximilian as Holy Roman emperor. When the French returned to Italy in 1522, a series of conflicts called the Habsburg-Valois wars (named for the German and French dynasties) began. The battlefield was often Italy.
Brunelleschi's Foundling Hospital in Florence
It was called the Ospendale degli Innocenti. It was built between the years 1421-55. Brunelleschi devised an austere, geometric style inspired by the art of ancient Rome.
Pico della Mirandola
Pico della Mirandola was a renaissance humanist who viewed humanity through a Christian perspective, meaning that he believed men and women were created in the image of God. Also as a Florentine writer, Mirandola is known for his essay On the Dignity of Man. It describes how man possesses dignity due to his creation in the likeness of God (before the Fall of Adam) and as Christ after the Resurrection. Man s place in the universe is between the beasts and angels but his God-influenced image makes him different. His image puts no limit to his accomplishments or what he can accomplish.
Desiderius Erasmus
A Dutch humanist of Rotterdam, Erasmus developed both knowledge and appreciation for the Latin language and the classics in a monastery. He met with John Colet in 1499 (England), the man who influenced him to apply humanistic learning to the study/explanation of the Bible. His knowledge of Greek made him quite famous especially for his works regarding Greek and Latin precepts on ethical behavior; idealistic/practical suggestions for a ruler s character derived from the studies of Plutarch, Aristotle, Cicero and Plato; and the Christian faith of children. He is most significant piece is the critical edition of the Greek New Testament (1516). Erasmus stresses to themes : first being that education is vital both morally and intellectually and that the Bible and the classics should be the focus of education; the second theme is the philosophy of Christ where the religion itself is an attitude within the heart or spirit and the words and the life of Christ. Erasmus believed that The Sermon on the Mount described the Christian message. The formalism, special ceremonies, law and the words of the theologians that accompany Christianity were virtually unnecessary.
Jan van Eyck
Jan van Eyck(1366-1441) was a Flemish(from Flanders) painter. In his lifetime he was considered an artistic equal to Italian painters along with fellow Flemish painter Rogier van der Weyden. They painted a generation before the great Leonardo and Michelangelo. Both were admired greatly in Italy and Eyck was one of the earliest artists to use the medium of oil-based paints successfully and effectively. In his paintings Ghent Altarpiece and portrait Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride he paid much attention to detail as most Flemish painters did, and also showed realism and attention to human personality.
Thomas More
Thomas More's life spanned from 1478-1535 through the sixteenth-century. His humanist beliefs and way of thinking would eventually lead to his death during the Reformation period and took away from his accomplishments and contribution to Christian humanism. More was a lawyer but was also interested in the classics. His own personal family life reflected his ideals in Christianity and humanism. Under Henry VIII, More became an ambassador to Flanders. It was at this time that he wrote the revolutionary book in 1516 that he is best known for, Utopia. Utopia means nowhere and described an ideal society on a remote island. In More's perfect society, all children receive a good education and are taught the Greco-Roman classics and adults divide their days equally between labor, business pursuits, and intellectual activities. In addition, there is absolute social equality and wars are prevented by buying off enemies with gold and silver. In More's novel, he was able to suggest that society's problems are based on greed. Mercy prevails over justice in Utopia, contrary to present society. All citizens of Utopia lived the ideal life in which reason is used and is the cause for this perfection. More's ideology was revolutionary in the sense that his views contrasted the common belief that vice and violence existed because of corruption in man and woman. Instead, More thought that these aspects of society were created by greediness and society's flawed institutions. Basically, More believed it was the structure of our social institutions that molded the individual, so if one was corrupt it was simply because the social institution caused one to be.
Donatello
Donatello was a sculptor (1386-1466) who probaly exerted the greatest influence of any Florentine artist before Michelangelo. His many statues express an appreciation of the incredible variety of human nature. He revived the classical figure, of doing nude with its self awareness and balance.
Baldassare Castiglione
Baldassare Castiglione wrote a book called The Courtier (1528) which had a broad influence on education. This treatise, a systematic written exposition sought to train, discipline, and fashion the young man into the courtly ideal, the gentleman. According to Castiglione, the educated man of the upper class should have a broad background in many academic subjects, and his spiritual and physical as well as intellectual capabilities should be trained. The coutier should have easy familiarity with dance, music, and the arts. Castiglione envisioned a man who could compose a sonnet, wrestle, sing a song, and accompany himself on an instrument, ride expertly, solve difficult mathematical problems, and above all write eloquently. This book was widely read during the 16th and 17th century, it also influenced the social mores and patterns of conduct of elite groups in the Renaissance and early modern Europe. The Courtier became the model of a European gentleman.
Niccolo Machiavelli
Niccolo Machiavelli was a political writer (1469-1527) during the Renaissance. His famous work, a short political treatise titled The Prince is on the subject of political power. It explains how a ruler should gain, maintain, and increase his power. He believed that human beings were selfish and out to advance their own interests, therefore giving the prince the right to manipulate the people in any way he finds necessary. Choosing between being loved and being feared, Machiavelli maintains that is much safer to be feared. Going against medieval philosophy on the way the government ought to be, Machiavelli stated that the ruler had to be concerned with the way things actually are. His ultimate significance was the following two ideas: (1) one permanent social order reflecting God’s will cannot be established, and (2) politics has its own laws and ought to be a science.
Johan Gutenberg
Johann Gutenberg, with the combined efforts of Johann Fust and Peter Schoffer, invented movable type printing. The mirror image of each letter, as opposed to entire words or phrases used before this time, was carved in relief on a small block. Since letters can be arranged into any format, an infinite variety of texts could be printed by reusing and rearranging pieces of type. The movable type brought in incredible changes. Printing made propaganda possible, emphasizing the differences between opposing groups. These differences laid the basis for the formation of distinct political parties, something we still have to this day. Geological difficulties were no longer a problem in forming a common identity between people, and quiet individuals could join causes and groups. Printing also stimulated the literacy of people and eventually came to have a deep effect on their private lives. Books were printed on all subjects, and since books and other printed materials were read aloud to illiterate listeners, printing, thanks to Johann Gutenberg, bridged the gap between written and oral cultures.
Lefevre d'Etaples
Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples, also known as Jacobus Faber Stapulensis, was a French philosopher and a Christian humanist who mostly studied Aristotle’s works and was influenced by Neoplatonism in Italy. Even though he believed in some of the ideas that was fundamental to the Reformation later on, he believed in reform from within and refused to break with the church, just like Erasmus. Publishing several manuscripts, he tried to prove that Mary, sister of Lazarus, Mary Magdalene, and the woman who washed Jesus’feet in Luke 7:36-50 were three different people in two critical essays. Healso published a French translation of the New Testament and of the Psalms. These biased translations and opinions about Mary made controversy. He was subjected to persecution and the Sorbonne condemned him, but his sister Margaret of Navarre protected him. He was exiled and then recalled as he became the librarian in the royal castle of Blois. While he worked as the librarian, he also worked on translating the Old Testament
Saint John Chrysostom
A church father, Saint John Chrysostom preached against homosexuals, as did several other fathers, even though many other people felt only indifference. In the time of the Renaissance, people didn’t base others by their sexual preferences.Many cities passed legislation about it, but the laws were not really observed. When talking about sodomy, the Renaissance only referred to two male partners since they thought women could only received pleasure from a man. The passive partners were usually younger males, boys, while the older male played the active role. Some saw it as a traditional male bonding, and some parents urged their attractive sons to accept the attentions of wealthy suitors. These activities were quite common, perhaps because of the late marriage ages for men or because it was a form of male bonding.
Lorenzo Valla
Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) was a humanist who, in his book "On the Pleasure," stated that pleasures of the senses were of the highest good. He is known by scholars as "a father of modern historical criticism." After his study of "the Donation of Constantine," he wrote that a random eight-century document that gave the papacy control over large territories in western Europe was a fraud. Before this, people of medieval times did not question "the Donation of Constantine" but rather accepted it as a truth. Lorenzo Valla's work showed the application of critical scholarship to old and "sacred" writings. He also represented the secular or "worldly" spirit of the times (Renaissance).
Savonarola
Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) had contributed to the fall of the Medici family rule in Florence through his criticism in a number of sermons from 1491 through 1494. He attacked what he saw as the paganism and immorality of the city, the undemocratic rule of Lorenzo de' Medici, and the corruption of Pope Alexander VI. For a time, he was praised by the common people who did not have the same worldly outlook as the educated elite had. Eventually, even commoners tired of his endless criticism. He was excommunicated by the pope and then executed. His career showed the instability of Italian cities such as Florence at the time.
Jerome Bosch
Jerome Bosch was a Flemish painter who combined religious themes with colorful imagery and folk legends to show the confusion and anguish caused by the end of the Middle Ages. He is famous for his paintings of landscapes with distorted people, animals, food, and demons. In one of his works, Death and the Miser, Bosch explores the Dance of Death theme, painting a miser whose gold is controlled by rats and toads who is being urged by his guardian angel to accept Christ.
Francois Rabelais
Francois Rabelais was a French humanist and talented satirist whose writings were widely read. In his masterpiece, Gargantua and Pantagruel, he told the story of Gargantua's and his son Pantagruel's adventures. Using humor, Rabelais mocked the monks, academics, and lawyers of his day and also questioned and examined institutions such as education. For example, during Gargantua's travels, he discusses religion, politics, philosophy, and education with those he meets. Rabelais's comic narrative was condemned by the Sorbonne, the theological college of the University of Paris, for obscenity and heresy, but some of the words he invented are still used by the French, and he remains one of the greatest French writers.
Explain why each of the following is considered a "new monarch":
Louis XI of France
Louis XI is considered a "new monarch" because of the methods he used to maintain authority and the way in which he viewed kingship. He believed that the monarchy was the one thing that bound all of the people of his country together, so it must have strong authority and had a national purpose. All subjects must be respectful and loyal and recognize royal sovereignty and royal majesty. He was not afraid of mercilessly putting down opposition, even if it dealt with a rebellious nobility. It can be said that Louis paved the way for French absolutism. Louis was known was the "Spider King" due to his treacherousness. He relentlessly expanded royal authority by gaining territories and unifying more of France through the army he built up. With this army he also was able to lessen the authority of aristocrats. The government was remodeled by Louis, and he relied mostly on the middle class for revenue. However, not everything about Louis XI was new. He also revived ideals of strong monarchs and practices, things from the Middle Ages.
Henry VII of England
Like all the other "new monarchs", Henry VII is classified as a "new monarch" due to his view of kingship and methods of rule. Before the era of the "new monarchs", a formation of central power was weakened by the feudal nobility. However, with the advent of monarchs like Henry VII, the nobility, and other sources of resistance were firmly and ruthlessly put down. Monarchs like Henry VII thoroughly enjoyed their position and worked diligently at it. In Henry's point of view, the monarchy was the most important part of the country, and he demanded loyalty and respect from all of his subjects. As a typical Renaissance ruler, he also revived the belief in the need for strong monarchies, methods in dealing with people, and dependence on the middle class for revenue. Henry VII worked to build up royal prestige, and he would override morality for hard results, a common practice with the "new monarchs". To diminish the power of nobility, and establish order and law at the local level, Henry XII used ruthlessness, efficiency, and secrecy.
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain are considered "new monarchs" because of the strong royal authority and national purpose they emphasized. Specifically, Ferdinand and Isabella limited opposition from the nobility by reviving the hermandades, and excluding the aristocrats and great magnates from the royal council. They also enforced royal authority by selecting the bishops of Spain and the Hispanic territories in America. To please the crowd, Ferdinand and Isabella got permission from the Pope Sixtus IV to set up the Inquisition in 1480. They eliminated many Jews, Conversos (Jews who had become Christian), Muslims, and Protestants. In this way, "absolute religious orthodoxy and purity of blood" brought Spain together.
Charles VII of France
Charles VII of France can be considered a new monarch in that he managed to bring France out of a dividing, depopulating, agriculturally and economically weakening time. And he managed to do this in ways that had not been used or utilized before by previous monarchies. Although he was thought to be the least likely to do so because he was frail and indecisive, Charles VII managed to put France on the long road to recovery by ending the ongoing thirty year war between the Burgundians and Armagnacs. Charles VII also remodeled the entire army and created the first permanent royal army. By 1438 he also published the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges which gave a general council superiority over a papacy. This established special Gallican rights that gave the French crown power over the French church. The control over both the church and the military basically put in concrete the authority of the French Crown. Then by 1543 Charles’ armies expelled the English from all French lands except that of Calais. And when Charles recognized the royal council he gave more influence to middle class men and improved the royal finances.
Cesare Borgia
Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, can be considered a new monarchy because, like many of his contemporaries, he used aggressive methods from Renaissance political ideas to rebuild their governments. He was unscrupulous, cruel and treacherous toward his political rivals. Before the death of his father Cesare was instrumental in the aiding militarily and politically of Alexander’s reassertion of his papal authority in papal lands. Cesare became very well known when he became a hero in the Italian philosopher’s Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince because of his work in uniting the peninsula and getting almost total obedience from the principalities making up the Papal States.